Journal of Casting & Materials Engineering
type: channel
description: The JOURNAL OF CASTING & MATERIALS ENGINEERING (JCME) is a peer-reviewed, academic e-periodical devoted to issues in engineering processes and casting materials. The periodical is published as a quarterly in the open access system by the AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków. The JCME publishes original research articles, as well as reviews and theoretical articles. The mission of the periodical is to contribute to the development of knowledge and new scientific ideas in the field of engineering processes and casting materials.
publisher: AGH University Press, 30 Mickiewicza Av., 30-059 Krakow
language: en
publication name: Journal of Casting & Materials Engineering
issn: 2543-9901
items: Antibacterial Polyurethane Adhesives for Medical Applications
items: Numerical Optimization of Investment‑Cast Wheel Components for Drone Applications using MAGMASOFT®
items: Microstructure-Erosion Resistance Correlation in High Chromium Cast Iron: A Digital Image Processing Approach
items: Comparison of Component Properties between HPDC and Rheocasting Applying the RheoMetalTM Process
items: Determination of the Heat Transfer Coefficient in the Isothermal Quenching Process of ADI Cast Iron Cooled with Water Mist
items: The Influence of Modified Inorganic Binders Intended for 3D Printing on Selected Properties of Thermally Cured Moulding Sands – Conventionally and with Microwaves
items: Selection of Molding Sands for Thin-Walled Cast Iron Castings Based on Their Selected Properties
items: The Impact of Wall Thickness on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Austenitic High-Nickel Ductile Iron
items: Reverse Engineering and Computer Modelling in Archaeometallurgy for the Reconstruction of Heritage Objects Using Precision Casting and 3D Printing
items: The Influence of the Knock-out Additive on the Mechanical Properties of Cores Made in the Core Blowing Process
items: Quaternionic Quantum Mechanics: the Particles, Their q-Potentials and Mathematical Electron Model
items: Harmonic Analysis in the Power Supply System of a Selected Single-Phase Industrial Robot
items: Influence of Cooling Rate on the Structure and Damping Properties of the AlSi6Cu4 Alloy
items: Design of a Solidification Rate Measurement Experiment for Cast Steel in Molds Made of Different Sands Using Computer Simulation
items: Influence of the Addition of Tellurium and Heat Treatmenton the Microstructure of Hypoeutectic White Cast Iron
items: The Implementation Potential of the Hybrid Hot Metal Desulfurization Model –The Transformation of Research Results into Technological Recommendations
items: ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT STATES IN THE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
items: Influence of Selected Corrosive Environment on the Scale Formation in Selected Materials Manufactured by Directed Energy Deposition 3D Printing Technology
items: 3-D Microstructure Reconstruction of Tetragonal Zirconia Polycrystalline
items: Occurrence of Chunky graphite in ductile cast iron solution strengthened by silicon
items: Theoretical Possibilities of Controlling the Cooling Rate in the Heat Treatment of Cast Iron with Water Mist
items: A Characterization of the Impact Toughness of Hot-rolled HSLA Steel
items: Bactericidal Properties of the Sol-gel Layer on Polymer Substrates in Medical Applications
items: Alloys for Hot Dip Galvanising on Thin-Walled Materials
items: An Experimental Derivation of Transient Nonuniform External Boundary Conditions for the Solidification Process Modeling of Equiaxed Investment Castings
items: New Pro-ecological Alkyd Binder for Moulding Sands with Limited Solvent Content
items: Evaluation of 3D-printed Pattern Material for Heat-hardened Inorganic Moulds
items: Solidification Process Modeling of Equiaxed Investment Castings with Transient Nonuniform Boundary Condition Definition
items: Effect of Titanium Alloying of Zn-Al-Cu Alloys for High Pressure Die Casting in Production Conditions
items: The Circular Economy in Terms of Zinc Recovery from Industrial Waste – Directions for the Development and Profitability of Recycling

Antibacterial Polyurethane Adhesives for Medical Applications
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description: In this study, polyurethane prepolymers and two-component adhesive systems with antibacterial properties were synthesised and characterised for potential biomedical applications as tissue adhesives. The developed materials were designed to operate in moist biological environments and to provide simultaneous adhesive and antibacterial functions. The viscosity of the obtained prepolymers, measured using a Brookfield viscometer, ranged from 2.30 to 3.36 Pa·s, indicating favourable rheological properties for dosing, mixing, and application on tissue surfaces. The chemical structure of the crosslinked adhesives was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy, which revealed characteristic urethane bands and the absence of isocyanate groups, indicating complete conversion during curing. Contact angle measurements demonstrated the hydrophilic nature of the materials, suggesting good potential for adhesion to wet biological tissues. Mechanical characterisation showed medium hardness (medium-soft materials) and high adhesive strength exceeding 5 MPa, confirming suitable mechanical performance for tissue bonding applications. Antibacterial testing indicated that the incorporation of a biopolymer-based antimicrobial agent resulted in strong biocidal activity, outperforming conventional silver-based additives. The results demonstrate that the developed polyurethane-based adhesive systems combine favourable mechanical, physicochemical, and antibacterial properties, making them promising candidates for surgical applications.
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creator: Barbara Pilch-Pitera
creator: Dominika Pitera
creator: Ireneusz Woźny
creator: Dariusz Krajewski
creator: Ewa Ciszkowicz
creator: Karol Bester
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Barbara Pilch-Pitera, Dominika Pitera, Ireneusz Woźny, Dariusz Krajewski, Ewa Ciszkowicz, Karol Bester https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-06-18
publication date: 2026-06-18
starting page: 54
ending page: 60
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.2.54

Numerical Optimization of Investment‑Cast Wheel Components for Drone Applications using MAGMASOFT®
type: item
description: Investment casting technology of thin‑walled components for drone applications requires precise filling and solidification control to minimise porosity and ensure structural integrity. Porosity is one of the most common defects found in castings, and its prediction and analysis are essential for improving the quality of complex superalloy components. In this work, porosity-related defects were examined using the MAGMASOFT® 6.1 numerical simulation software for casting, focusing on the filling and solidification behaviour of an investment casting wheel body component in drone applications. A series of simulations were performed, and two design and simulation versions were developed, analysed and compared. The wheel body component selected for this work is made of IN713 superalloy. The numerical modelling included the assessment of porosity distribution, hot spot formation, filling behaviour, cooling, and solidification patterns. Fifteen combinations of alloy and shell initial temperatures were evaluated to determine the most favourable thermal conditions for reducing porosity, considering the specific geometry and casting characteristics of the wheel. Based on the initial results, the casting design was modified by adjusting the runner geometry and assembly configuration. This study introduces a two-stage simulation approach to optimise porosity reduction. The second version of the simulations demonstrated a noticeable reduction in pores, particularly in critical regions of the wheel body. The findings can support drone component manufacturers in improving casting reliability. The results confirm that simulation-driven optimisation of the casting design and thermal parameters can significantly improve the quality of the components produced by investment casting technology.
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creator: Joshua Samuel Isaac Jonthala
creator: Janusz Lelito
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Joshua Jonthala, Janusz Lelito https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-06-18
publication date: 2026-06-18
starting page: 42
ending page: 53
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.2.42

Microstructure-Erosion Resistance Correlation in High Chromium Cast Iron: A Digital Image Processing Approach
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description: High chromium cast irons (HCCIs) are widely employed as wear-resistant hardfacing materials in industrial applications where solid particle erosion (SPE) represents a primary degradation mechanism, such as in energy production, mining, and cement manufacturing. The erosive wear resistance of these alloys is strongly dependent on the microstructural features of the primary M7C3 carbides, particularly their size, morphology, and spatial distribution within the metallic matrix. The quantitative relationship between carbide distribution homogeneity and erosion resistance has received limited attention in the literature. This study investigates the erosive wear resistance of a Fe-Cr-C cast iron hardfacing alloy and proposes three digital image processing methods to quantitatively characterise the carbide microstructure and correlate it with experimental erosion test results. Optical microscopy combined with image binarisation was used to segment primary M7C3 carbides. Three methods were adopted: carbide volume fraction (CVF), minimum inter-carbide distances, and a moving scanning area approach. Erosion tests were conducted according to ASTM G76 guidelines using two Arizona road dust powder grades with two mean diameters under equal kinetic energy conditions. Results show that the erosion rate decreases significantly with the increasing erodent particle size and that carbide distribution homogeneity plays a critical role in determining the erosion resistance. The moving scanning area method proved particularly effective at correlating microstructural coverage with experimental erosion rates.
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creator: Ottavia Vezzani
creator: Annalisa Fortini
creator: Michele Gragnanini
creator: Alessio Suman
creator: Nicola Zanini
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Ottavia Vezzani, Annalisa Fortini, Michele Gragnanini, Alessio Suman, Nicola Zanini https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-06-18
publication date: 2026-06-18
starting page: 34
ending page: 41
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.2.34

Comparison of Component Properties between HPDC and Rheocasting Applying the RheoMetalTM Process
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description: Since the 1970s, there has been increasing interest in semi-solid processes, allowing improved mould filling with lower gas porosity and lower melt temperatures with improved tool life compared to the standard HPDC process. Challenges lie in the process know-how and the precise temperature control to ensure process stability and reproducibility. In contrast to other semi-solid processes, the RheoMetalTM process achieves the semi-solid state by stirring in an enthalpy exchange material (EEM). This work compares component properties (engine mount) produced by standard HPDC and rheocasting, applying the RheoMetalTM process using an AlSi7MnMg alloy. The results of component testing and radioscopic examination reveal promising outcomes regarding process stability, pore formation, and component properties compared to the standard HPDC process.
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creator: Andreas Cziegler
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Andreas Cziegler https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-06-18
publication date: 2026-06-18
starting page: 30
ending page: 33
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.2.30

Determination of the Heat Transfer Coefficient in the Isothermal Quenching Process of ADI Cast Iron Cooled with Water Mist
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description: Isothermal quenching of austempering cast iron (ADI) castings requires that, after austenitization the casting must be rapidly cooled to the temperature of isothermal austenite decomposition. The cooling rate throughout the entire volume of the heat-treated product must be high enough to prevent pearlitic transformation. At the same time, the temperature of the cooled surface must not decrease below the martensitic transformation start temperature Ms. The cooling rate of the casting surface is determined by factors such as the temperature difference between the surface of the cooled casting and the cooling medium, the thermal conductivity of cast iron, the heat transfer coefficient, and the wall thickness of the treated casting. In the case of cooling with water mist, the heat transfer coefficient depends on the temperature of the cooled surface. To control the cooling process of castings using water mist, information about this relationship for the temperature range of 200–800°C is needed. Available scientific publications on this subject contain contradictory data. Therefore, a measuring station was built with the ability to set the temperature of the cooled surface. The station includes a measuring system that allows the measurement of the heat flux flowing from the heating element into the environment. The result of the research is the measurement of the relationship between the temperature of the cooled surface and the heat transfer coefficient. The values obtained will be used in the future to build a numerical model of ADI castings heat treatment. This work may contribute to the future replacement of salt baths (currently used for fast cooling and austempering) with water mist spraying. In this case, the low-temperature operation of austenite decomposition can be performed without the use of salt a bath.
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creator: Andriy Burbelko
creator: Piotr Stręk
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Andriy Burbelko, Piotr Stręk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-03-31
publication date: 2026-03-31
starting page: 10
ending page: 15
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.1.10-15

The Influence of Modified Inorganic Binders Intended for 3D Printing on Selected Properties of Thermally Cured Moulding Sands – Conventionally and with Microwaves
type: item
description: This study determined the impact of thermal curing on the basic properties of moulding compounds made with commercial inorganic binders and binders based on them, modified for use in 3D printing technology (Binder Jetting). Two inorganic binders based on sodium silicate and a binder based on aluminosilicates were tested. As part of the work, the parameters for thermal curing of the mixtures were selected: for curing in a dryer, the best properties were obtained for mixtures containing 2.0 p.p.w. of binder cured for 10 min at 160°C. In the case of microwave curing, the best properties were obtained for moulding sands containing 2.0 p.p.w. of binder cured for 6 min at a device power of 800 W. The tests showed that the basic properties of moulding compounds with binders developed on the basis of commercial binders for use in 3D printing technology, thermally cured in a dryer, do not differ significantly from the properties of compounds with commercial binders. In the case of microwave curing, a reduction in the strength of compounds with new binders was observed in relation to compounds with classic binders. Thermal deformation tests of compounds with classic and modified binders confirmed the typical behavior observed for inorganic systems. It was proven that new, modified inorganic binders developed for 3D printing of moulds and cores using Binder Jetting technology can be used as binding materials in thermally cured moulding sands. Both thermal curing methods were assessed as suitable for curing moulding compounds with new binders.
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creator: Dawid Halejcio
creator: Katarzyna Major-Gabryś
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Dawid Halejcio, Katarzyna Major-Gabryś https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-03-31
publication date: 2026-03-31
starting page: 1
ending page: 9
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.1.1-9

Selection of Molding Sands for Thin-Walled Cast Iron Castings Based on Their Selected Properties
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description: The production process of thin-walled iron castings with complex shapes, characterized by high quality while maintaining the required properties, involves many steps. One of them is the appropriate selection of the technology for molding and core sands, taking into account strict environmental requirements. The need to meet high environmental standards is currently the dominant factor in the development of molding sands technologies. It is even being done at the expense of reducing the technological properties of the materials. As part of the development of molding compounds for thin-walled castings, two compounds with organic binders and two compounds with inorganic binders were tested. Tests were carried out on the tensile and bending strength, density, permeability, and friability of the compounds. Their thermophysical behavior was tested via the hot distortion parameter. The tests carried out on the molding sands showed that all the proposed mixtures have the appropriate properties for the production of thin-walled castings.
subject: Special Issues
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creator: Katarzyna Major-Gabryś
creator: Dariusz Drożyński
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Katarzyna Major-Gabryś, Dariusz Drożyński https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-06-08
publication date: 2026-06-08
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.S1.7-15

The Impact of Wall Thickness on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Austenitic High-Nickel Ductile Iron
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description: Austenitic ductile iron belongs to the cast iron group characterized by high nickel content, ranging from 18% to 36% by weight, which allows the formation of an austenitic metallic matrix. As a consequence, this cast iron group exhibits a combination of highly beneficial properties allowing utilization under extreme conditions and justifies the increased price of these cast iron grades. Some of the applications require complex castings with changing geometry and wall thicknesses. For this reason, the main objective of this study was to determine the possibility of obtaining castings with various degrees of wall thickness, including thin-walled: 3 mm, 5 mm, 13 mm and 25 mm, and good quality microstructures without defects as well as with mechanical properties on a similar level. For our investigations the austenitic ductile cast iron grade EN-GJSA-XNi22 was selected. Material characterization was carried out using optical microscopy, and static tensile test measurements. Additionally, the thermal analysis during crystallization was also determined. The investigations showed the highly homogeneous mechanical properties of castings with various wall thicknesses. The main differences in the microstructure parameters concerned the number and diameter of the graphite nodules.
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creator: Magdalena Bork
creator: Marcin Górny
creator: Giuliano Angella
creator: Jan Marosz
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Magdalena Bork, Marcin Górny, Giuliano Angella, Jan Marosz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-03-16
publication date: 2026-03-16
starting page: 1
ending page: 6
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.S1.1-6

Reverse Engineering and Computer Modelling in Archaeometallurgy for the Reconstruction of Heritage Objects Using Precision Casting and 3D Printing
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description: This article presents an interdisciplinary approach to the reconstruction of a copper-alloy artefact using reverse engineering techniques combined with modern digital and manufacturing technologies. The research was motivated by the need to better understand historical casting techniques while preserving the integrity of cultural heritage objects through non-destructive methods. The study integrates 3D scanning, CAD-based modelling, numerical simulations, investment casting, and metal additive manufacturing. The geometry of the artefact was captured using high-resolution 3D scanning, enabling the development of two CAD models: one representing the preserved state of the object and a second reconstructed model with the missing fragment digitally restored. Both models were used for numerical simulations of mould filling, solidification, cooling, and porosity formation performed in MAGMASOFT® 6.1, allowing the assessment of technological feasibility and defect formation. Based on the simulation results, physical replicas were produced using investment casting and selective laser melting. The obtained numerical and experimental results were compared in terms of geometry reproduction, surface characteristics, and predicted versus observed casting behaviour. The study demonstrates that the combination of digital reconstruction, simulation tools, and experimental manufacturing provides a reliable framework for analysing historical metallurgical processes. The proposed methodology supports both scientific interpretation and the practical reconstruction of heritage objects and can be applied to a wide range of archaeometallurgical studies.
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creator: Karolina Marlicka
creator: Andrzej Fijołek
creator: Aldona Garbacz-Klempka
creator: Marcin Piękoś
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Karolina Marlicka, Andrzej Fijołek, Aldona Garbacz-Klempka, Marcin Piękoś https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-12-23
publication date: 2025-12-23
starting page: 72
ending page: 79
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.4.72

The Influence of the Knock-out Additive on the Mechanical Properties of Cores Made in the Core Blowing Process
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description: The article presents the results of research on the effect of an additive improving shakeout (perlite ore with a specified grain size) on the mechanical properties of cores produced by the blowing process. The study was conducted on cores (standard specimens for tensile strength testing) made from core sands with varying amounts of loosening additive, depending on the core box temperature and shooting time, at a constant operating pressure of the shooting machine. The temperature of the core box at which the cores achieved the best mechanical properties was identified, and the necessity of optimizing both the amount of perlite ore additive and the binder content in the core sand to ensure the required mechanical properties of the cores was demonstrated.
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creator: Artur Bobrowski
creator: Jakub Kowalski
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Artur Bobrowski, Jakub Kowalski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-12-23
publication date: 2025-12-23
starting page: 66
ending page: 71
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.4.66

Quaternionic Quantum Mechanics: the Particles, Their q-Potentials and Mathematical Electron Model
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description: In this work we show the quaternionic quantum descriptions of physical processes from the Planck to macro scale. The results presented here are based on the concepts of the Cauchy continuum and the elementary cell at the Planck scale. The structurally symmetric quaternion relations and the postulate of the quaternion velocity have been important in the present development. The momentum of the expansion and compression u̇0(t, x) is the consequence of the scalar term σ0(t, x) in the quaternionic deformation potential. The quaternionic G0(m)(σ0 + φ̂ ), vectorial G0(m)φ̂ and scalar G0(m)σ0 propagators are used to generate the second order PDE systems for the proton, electron and neutron. A mathematical model of an electron is formulated. It is described by the hyperbolic-elliptic partial differential system of quaternion equations with the initial-boundary conditions. The boundary conditions are generated by the quaternion energy flux that is found with the use of the Gauss theorem, the Cauchy–Riemann derivative and other mathematical formulas. The rigorous assessment of the second order PDE systems allows the proposal of two second order PDE systems for the u and d quarks from the up and down groups. It was verified that both the proton and the neutron obey experimental findings and are formed by three quarks. The proton and neutron are formed by the d-u-u and d-d-u complexes, respectively. The u and d quarks do not comply with the Cauchy equation of motion. The inconsistencies of the quarks’ PDE with the quaternion forms of the Cauchy equation of motion account for their short lifetime and the observed Quarks Chains. That is, they explain the Wilczek phenomenological paradox: Quarks are Born Free, but everywhere they are in Chains.
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creator: Bogusław Bożek
creator: Marek Danielewski
creator: Lucjan Sapa
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Bogusław Bożek, Marek Danielewski, Lucjan Sapa https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2026-03-31
publication date: 2026-03-31
starting page: 16
ending page: 29
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2026.10.1.16-29

Harmonic Analysis in the Power Supply System of a Selected Single-Phase Industrial Robot
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description: The selection of industrial robots in technological lines is primarily based on their technical characteristics, such as the type of construction, the number of axis, reach, maximum load, and power supply parameters (power consumption in single-phase or three-phase systems). In the overall energy balance, the transient states and the harmonics of voltages and currents in the power supply system of the selected industrial robot are also operationally significant. The article presents the results of harmonic analysis of voltage and current in the power supply system of a chosen industrial single-phase robot.
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creator: Eugeniusz Ziółkowski
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Eugeniusz Ziółkowski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-09-18
publication date: 2025-09-18
starting page: 45
ending page: 49
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.3.45

Influence of Cooling Rate on the Structure and Damping Properties of the AlSi6Cu4 Alloy
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description: The investigated alloy was cast as a shaft into seven casting molds. Casting molds made of different materials were characterized by different abilities to conduct heat from the sample. This property significantly influenced the cooling rate of the sample casting from the AlSi6Cu4 alloy. The highest cooling rate was achieved in a steel mold at 25°C and the lowest in a mold made of insulating mass. Different cooling rates significantly influenced the structure of the alloy. Different grain sizes were obtained and the morphology of the microstructure components changed. At the highest cooling rate of 16.63 K·s−1, a grain with an average size of 0.58 mm was obtained. However, in the mold with the lowest cooling rate of 0.36 K·s−1, the average grain size was 3.76 mm. Changes in the structure of the alloy also influenced its damping properties. The tested values f the vibration damping coefficient α indicated that the AlSi6Cu4 alloy cooling with the highest cooling rate has the highest value of damping coefficient. This is influenced by the grain size and shape of the silicon precipitates. The refinement structure and fragmented components effectively disperse the vibration wave in the structure of the casting alloy.
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creator: Grzegorz Piwowarski
creator: Mateusz Ogrodnik
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Grzegorz Piwowarski, Mateusz Ogrodnik https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-09-18
publication date: 2025-09-18
starting page: 32
ending page: 38
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.3.32

Design of a Solidification Rate Measurement Experiment for Cast Steel in Molds Made of Different Sands Using Computer Simulation
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description: This article presents the design process of the casting technology for a step-shaped casting made of steel using simulation tools. A series of proposals for gating and feeding systems were simulated in the MAGMASoft® software. Results of numerical simulations allowed the Authors to select the casting technology which allows defect-free casting to be obtained. A numerical analysis of the cooling rate of a step-shaped casting made of GX70CrMnSiNiMo2 tool steel with a 5% Ti addition was carried out for the selected manufacturing technology. Due to the nature of the material used and the extended presence of martensite during cooling, in-mold hardening of the casting may occur. The simulations showed that the type of molding material affects the cooling rate, which is confirmed by the analysis of cooling curves and the morphology of shrinkage porosity. The analysis of solidification rates provides a valuable starting point and basis for subsequent research stages, taking into account the actual properties of the molding sands and the phase transformations occurring in the selected steel type. The casting technology design, which ensures the production of sound casting, was developed as part of this study. A series of simulations using different molding materials confirms the significant impact that the choice of mold material has on the casting solidification and cooling process.
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creator: Paweł Żak
creator: Natalia Mordyl
creator: Jarosław Jakubski
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Paweł Żak, MSc. Eng. Natalia Mordyl, Prof. Jarosław Jakubski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-09-18
publication date: 2025-09-18
starting page: 39
ending page: 44
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.3.39

Influence of the Addition of Tellurium and Heat Treatmenton the Microstructure of Hypoeutectic White Cast Iron
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description: This study investigates how the addition of tellurium and heat treatment affects the microstructure of hypoeutectic white cast iron that has been modified with alloying elements such as titanium, chromium and vanadium. Samples with different chemical compositions were prepared and subjected to a two-step heat treatment process. Microstructural characterisation was performed using optical and scanning electron microscopy. The results show that introducing tellurium significantly affects the morphology of the cementite and carbide phases, causing them to fragment and become more evenly distributed. Furthermore, heat treatment enhanced matrix refinement and promoted phase stability. The combination of tellurium addition and heat treatment produced the most favourable microstructures, characterised by the high dispersion of hard phases within a fine-grained matrix.
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creator: Alicja Trela-Przybyło
creator: Magdalena Kawalec
creator: Marcin Górny
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Alicja Trela-Przybyło, Prof. Magdalena Kawalec, Marcin Górny https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-12-23
publication date: 2025-12-23
starting page: 50
ending page: 58
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.4.50

The Implementation Potential of the Hybrid Hot Metal Desulfurization Model –The Transformation of Research Results into Technological Recommendations
type: item
description: This study presents the development of a hybrid model for the desulfurization of hot metal using dual reagent injection of CaO and Mg, integrating thermodynamic equilibrium calculations with kinetic analysis based on Tank Theory. The objective is to provide practical technological recommendations that enable effective industrial application of the process. The model allows real-time simulation of sulfur concentration changes under varying parameters such as reagent dosage and mixing intensity, while an optimization module supports the selection of operating conditions by balancing desulfurization efficiency with material consumption and operational costs. The system adapts to changing technological conditions including feedstock composition and process temperature, ensuring flexibility in industrial practice. In addition to process control, the model incorporates economic evaluation by correlating reagent consumption with achieved technological outcomes, which enhances its practical value. The proposed solution represents a step toward intelligent desulfurization systems that combine the precision of physicochemical modeling with the adaptability of modern process control. Implementation of the hybrid model may lead to higher efficiency, reduced consumption of consumables, and stable achievement of target sulfur levels, thereby strengthening the economic competitiveness of iron production.
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creator: Angelika Podolska-Loska
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Angelika Podolska-Loska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-12-23
publication date: 2025-12-23
starting page: 59
ending page: 65
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.4.59

ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT STATES IN THE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIAL ROBOT
type: item
description: Industrial robots are controlled by dedicated controllers, which are powered by single-phase or three-phase power supply system. The main power parameters characterizing the power supply system of these robots are: nominal supply voltage (1-phase: 100-120 V, 200-240 V or 3-phase 200-575 V AC), frequency of the supply voltage (50 or 60 Hz), nominal power consumed by industrial robot. The dynamics of power consumption in the power supply system of controlled robot can be studied by recording instantaneous values of voltages and currents in each phase of the power grid. In this article are presented results for measurements of mentioned instantaneous values for chosen single-phase powered robot, taken by specialized recorder. Obtained measurements from recorder allows to calculate numerically various energetic values in the power supply system of robot: peak-peak values, RMS values, coefficients of deformation and values of harmonic amplitudes (FFT), values of active, reactive and apparent power and the power coefficient (tgϕ). The analysis of waveforms of instantaneous values of voltage and current allows to determine the occurrence of transient states during work of robot axes and characterizing its duration and the range of value changes). Carried out analyses can be using to properly design protection systems of the power supply system, at eventual selection of filters for higher harmonics and to determine effective power consumption of studied robot. The analyses of transient states which occurred during work of studied robot in this publication significantly expand the knowledge about the dynamics of power consumption and its possible impact on the quality of electricity in the power supply grid.
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creator: Sebastian Nowocień
creator: Eugeniusz Ziółkowski
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Sebastian Nowocień, Eugeniusz Ziółkowski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-06-30
publication date: 2025-06-30
starting page: 16
ending page: 22
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.2.16

Influence of Selected Corrosive Environment on the Scale Formation in Selected Materials Manufactured by Directed Energy Deposition 3D Printing Technology
type: item
description: Additive technologies, and in particular Directed Energy Deposition (DED), are becoming an increasingly important tool for the rapid production of components operating in, among others, the energy, aviation, petrochemical industries, where components are exposed to extreme thermochemical conditions. In the article, the influence of various corrosive atmospheres atmospheric air, water vapor and SO₂-argon- mixture – on the process of scale formation on the surface of materials manufactured using Directed Energy Deposition (DED) technology is presented. The tests were carried out at a temperature of 600°C (for air and water vapor) and 300°C (for SO₂-argon atmosphere). The mass increase and surface damage was monitored. It has been shown that the chemical composition of materials, especially the content of alloying elements such as Cr and Ni, is crucial for corrosion resistance. The obtained results provide the basis for further optimization of the composition of powders used in additive manufacturing techniques, in terms of operating conditions in aggressive environments.
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creator: Marcin Małysza
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Marcin Małysza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-09-18
publication date: 2025-09-18
starting page: 23
ending page: 31
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.3.23

3-D Microstructure Reconstruction of Tetragonal Zirconia Polycrystalline
type: item
description: The microstructure of a material is fundamental to its properties and behavior under mechanical and thermal loads. Understanding the internal structure of a material and controlling the microstructure at the stage of ceramic materials synthesis are essential for designing materials with desired properties. This study focuses on the three-dimensional reconstruction of the microstructure of yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystalline (TZP). The goal was to create accurate digital models of the microstructure, which could be used for further material analysis. The study utilized images obtained through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), based on which the basic stereological parameters were determined. The microstructure reconstruction was performed using the Laguerre tessellation method, allowing for the generation of three-dimensional digital models of the microstructure that represent the material's internal structure. The results confirm that based on the basic stereological parameters obtained from two-dimensional cross-sections, three-dimensional reconstruction of the microstructure of polycrystalline zirconia is possible. This work, therefore, represents a step towards the effective design of ceramic materials with high performance parameters, through the control and optimization of their microstructure.
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creator: Grzegorz Grabowski
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Grzegorz Grabowski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-03-28
publication date: 2025-03-28
starting page: 1
ending page: 7
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.1.1

Occurrence of Chunky graphite in ductile cast iron solution strengthened by silicon
type: item
description: Solution strengthened ferritic cast iron is characterised in EN 1563:2018 (and also in ISO 1083:2018) as grades EN-GJS-450-18, EN-GJS-500-14 and EN-GJS-600-10. Machine and plant builders have been using this material in new designs since 2011. The strength and ductile properties, competitive in comparison with the previous classical ductile cast iron grades, make it possible to reduce the weight of castings. Particularly preferred is grade EN-GJS-600-10 with UTS min. 600 MPa and A min. 10%. Strengthening of the ferritic matrix is possible due to the content of approximately 4.2% of silicon in the cast iron. In casting practice, this material is difficult to produce in a stable manner due to the frequent occurrence of degenerate Chunky graphite in the casting structure, resulting in a loss of ductile properties of the cast iron. In this article, an analysis has been made, based on literature, of the occurrence of strong negative segregation of silicon in classical ductile cast iron. Own research has confirmed the occurrence of chunky graphite in the cast. Dendritic crystallisation of austenite and strong segregation of silicon favours the formation of Chunky graphite. A much stronger proportion of silicon was found in the Chunky graphite zone, compared to the adjacent ball graphite zone. The introduction of micro-additives into the liquid melt eliminated the presence of Chunky graphite in the casting. The applied modifiers of graphite and metal matrix (hybrid modification) seem to be an effective method to stabilise the technological process of this innovative casting material.
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creator: Artur Zaczyński
creator: Maciej Królikowski
creator: Adam Nowak
creator: Marek Sokolnicki
creator: Edward Guzik
creator: Andriy Burbelko
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Artur Zaczyński, Maciej Królikowski, Adam Nowak, Marek Sokolnicki, Edward Guzik, Andriy Burbelko https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2025-06-30
publication date: 2025-06-30
starting page: 9
ending page: 15
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2025.9.2.8

Theoretical Possibilities of Controlling the Cooling Rate in the Heat Treatment of Cast Iron with Water Mist
type: item
description: The goal of the cooling procedure after austenitizing in the austempering heat treatment process applied to ausferritic ductile iron (ADI) castings is to rapidly reduce the temperature throughout the casting volume to the temperature range of the process window in which the proper metal matrix structure is formed. The lower limit of this range must be higher than the temperature at which the martensitic transformation starts. The upper limit is selected to eliminate the possibility of diffusion decomposition of austenite while holding castings at austempering temperature. Most often in heat treatment practice, salt baths are used for this purpose. Such a solution makes it possible to realize in one device both the procedure of cooling down to a given temperature and the procedure of isothermal heat treatment at this temperature. Unfortunately, the presence of molten salt in the process equipment has a very unfavorable impact on working conditions and ecology. The purpose of this research is to analyze the possibility of replacing the salt bath cooling procedure in the manufacturing process of ADI castings with a water mist spray cooling procedure on the surfaces of the heat-treated casting. If such cooling is effective, subsequent procedures of heat treatment operations can be carried out with traditional furnace equipment without the use of molten salt, which will clearly improve the environmental performance of the enterprise. The article, using analytical and numerical methods, analyzes the possibility of cooling objects made of cast iron with the help of a high-efficiency heat receiver such as water mist spraying. The limiting conditions for carrying out the process for the assumed cooling curve were considered. It was proposed to use a PID controller realizing the function of controlling the intensity of water mist spray, which corresponds to the intensity of the heat flux received from the heat-treated casting. The theoretical analysis carried out allows us to…
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creator: Piotr Stręk
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Piotr Stręk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-12-24
publication date: 2024-12-24
starting page: 68
ending page: 73
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.4.68

A Characterization of the Impact Toughness of Hot-rolled HSLA Steel
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description: Due to the wide use of HSLA steels in difficult conditions, e.g. at low temperatures, it is extremely important to test the impact strength of these steels. This is equally important because most of those structures are made by welding these steels, and the welding process itself has a significant impact on the properties of joints and welding zones. In this work, the authors analyzed two selected representative HSLA steels rolled in the Krakow branch of ArcelorMittal Poland S.A. – the only place in Poland where HSLA steels in the form of hot-rolled strips can be produced on an industrial scale. Impact tests were performed in accordance with technical acceptance standards, and then the fracture surfaces after impact tests were characterized using light and scanning microscopy. In the next part of the work, a set of previously gathered data were analyzed to determine the influence of thermomechanical rolling process parameters on the level of impact strength and the influence of chemical composition on it.
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creator: Tomasz Hamryszczak
creator: Tomasz Śleboda
creator: Oleksandr Lypchanskyi
creator: Krzysztof Pańcikiewicz
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Tomasz Hamryszczak, Tomasz Śleboda, Oleksandr Lypchanskyi, Krzysztof Pańcikiewicz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-12-02
publication date: 2024-12-02
starting page: 54
ending page: 58
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.4.54

Bactericidal Properties of the Sol-gel Layer on Polymer Substrates in Medical Applications
type: item
description: Polymeric biomaterials are a group of plastics used in medical devices, implants, and artificial organ components. In order to maintain the higher asepticity of the products, solutions based on the modification of the volume or surface of a plastic with biocidal agents, e.g. antibiotics, nanoparticles, are used. One of the methods used to impart biocidal properties to the material can be the use of layers applied by the sol-gel method. The aim of this study was to produce homogeneous and durable coatings on inert and hydrophobic silicone surfaces based on polysiloxane sols with biocidal activity against model bacteria: Gram negative (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae) and Gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis). This paper presents results of investigations on a commercial biomedical silicone material (DEMED Sp. zoo) modified with eight sols; siloxane (TD), phenol-siloxane (FD), siloxane-aluminum (TD-Al), siloxane-titanium (TD-Ti), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn), and TD and TD-Al sols modified with green tea extract (TD-GT, TD-Al-GT). The reference for the tested materials was unmodified silicone. In order to be prepared for coating, the siloxane samples were etched with hydrofluoric acid. Residual acid was removed from the silicone by washing and the substrates were then coated with sols by means of dip coating. The modified materials were then polymerized at 100°C for one week. The produced layered composites were subjected to microstructural, physicochemical, structural and microbiological analysis by contacting them with Gramm negative and Gramm positive bacteria. It was shown that the strongest biocidal properties were exhibited by samples modified with the sols based on - Zn, TD-Ti, Ti, TD-Al-GT and TD-GT.
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creator: Paulina Armatys
creator: Elżbieta Długoń
creator: Wojciech Smółka
creator: Robert Sobota
creator: Aneta Frączek-Szczypta
creator: Jarosław Markowski
creator: Ewa Stodolak-Zych
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Paulina Armatys, Elżbieta Długoń, Wojciech Smółka, Robert Sobota, Aneta Frączek-Szczypta, Ewa Stodolak-Zych, Jarosław Markowski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-12-02
publication date: 2024-12-02
starting page: 59
ending page: 67
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.4.59

Alloys for Hot Dip Galvanising on Thin-Walled Materials
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description: The article reviews alloy additives to zinc and their impact on the quality of coatings achieved on structural steel. It also analyses the impact of the concentration of acid used for the chemical stripping of raw material on the zinc coating thickness of the steel. The zinc layer thickness changed depending on the concentration of alloy elements in the bath. It was stated that aluminium and bismuth have a low impact on the decrease in zinc coating thickness, while in the case of tin, a small change to the content (from 0.6% to 0.8%) significantly decreased the zinc layer thickness. Furthermore, it was found that, during the hot dip galvanising of steel, particular alloy elements are extracted from the bath. This results in the need to supplement alloy elements through periodical melting in for the purpose of maintaining the assumed bath composition. It was observed that, together with the increase in alloy elements concentration, zinc uptake (galvanised component weight ratio to black component weight) decreases, improving the process economics.
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creator: Piotr Żabiński
creator: Beata Leszczynska-Madej
creator: Grzegorz Włoch
creator: Piotr Lewartowski
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Piotr Żabiński, Beata Leszczynska-Madej, Grzegorz Włoch, Piotr Lewartowski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-10-23
publication date: 2024-10-23
starting page: 45
ending page: 53
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.3.45

An Experimental Derivation of Transient Nonuniform External Boundary Conditions for the Solidification Process Modeling of Equiaxed Investment Castings
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description: The external heat transfer mechanisms acting on the external mold surfaces for equiaxed casting processes are very complex. The mechanisms are multi-mode, transient, and nonuniform, consisting of very complex radiative and convective definitions. In this work, a real-life mold, SGT6-5000 FD 3/4 Blade 4 cast in Alloy-247, was instrumented with thermocouples and temperature readings were recorded throughout the entire casting sequence of events. Analytical models based on the first law of thermodynamics, Fourier’s law, Newton’s Law of Cooling, and diffuse gray radiation for an N-sided enclosure were developed to use the thermocouple data as input to back calculate the emissivity of the mold, as well as the spatially varying heat transfer coefficients for a number of local regions. The derived external heat transfer mechanisms are presented as transient Biot numbers. The derived emissivity and nonuniform heat transfer coefficients for these surfaces were then validated in ProCAST numerical simulation by comparing the external mold temperature profiles. An extensive iterative, curve fitting, extrapolating, and averaging procedure was exercised to derive an expression for emissivity across the entire temperature range associated with the casting process. The predicted temperatures on the nodes corresponding to the thermocouple locations agree within reasonable error with the experimental data. The model also qualitatively predicted the shrinkage porosity detected via x-ray imaging for this casting. The current study confirms the hypothesis of previous work by the current authors with respect to the transient nonuniform boundary condition concept. Unique values of heat transfer coefficients were observed at different vertical positions along the airfoil. The analytical models were also able to capture phenomena associated with specific sequences of the casting process. This work provides the analytical models, and procedure, needed to derive these spatially varying condit…
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creator: Weston Olson
creator: Michael Stemmler
creator: Erik Fernandez
creator: Jayanta Kapat
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Weston Olson, Michael Stemmler, Erik Fernandez, Jayanta Kapat https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-09-30
publication date: 2024-09-30
starting page: 30
ending page: 44
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.3.30

New Pro-ecological Alkyd Binder for Moulding Sands with Limited Solvent Content
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description: Moulding sands with an alkyd binder are used primarily in the production of massive castings, mainly of cast steel, but they can also be used for castings made of other alloys. Moulding sands with an alkyd binder compete with self-hardening sands with phenolic and furfuryl resins. They have several advantages in common with furan moulding sands, such as excellent knock-out properties and very good quality of the casting surface. Additionally, alkyd moulding sands do not contain nitrogen, sulphur, formaldehyde and water, various sands can be used as a matrix: quartz, chromite, zircon or olivine and a high proportion of reclaimed material (up to 90%), moreover the moulding sand has high plasticity. The disadvantages of this technology include limited ability to adjust the hardening time, high binder viscosity and high sensitivity of the moulding sand to the matrix and the ambient humidity. The Prec-Odlew company is a Polish manufacturer of, among others, alkyd resins for the foundry industry. As part of the project: “Development and implementation of technologies for obtaining ecological binders (systems) for bonding highly refractory ceramic materials” (RPMP.01.02.01-12-0636/18) two new alkyd resins were developed with a reduced amount of solvents: SL2017 and SL2019. So far, resins of this type contained approximately 40–50% of solvents, including aromatic ones. The newly developed resins have a reduced amount of solvents in their composition – they contain from 20% to 30% and mainly non-aromatic solvents. The SL 2019 resin contains solvents that do not include any aromatic compounds in the form of hydrocarbons. This article presents the results of testing the properties of moulding sands using the standard alkyd resin and the newly developed resins. The obtained results confirmed the possibility of making moulding sands with innovative binders, and even higher strength values were observed than in the case of the reference moulding sand with the SL 2002 binder.
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creator: Stanisław M. Dobosz
creator: Jan Kozień
creator: Dariusz Drożyński
creator: Małgorzata Hosadyna-Kondracka
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Stanisław M. Dobosz, Jan Kozień, Dariusz Drożyński, Małgorzata Hosadyna-Kondracka https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-05-27
publication date: 2024-05-27
starting page: 19
ending page: 24
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.2.19

Evaluation of 3D-printed Pattern Material for Heat-hardened Inorganic Moulds
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description: Inorganic binders for sand moulding are currently of high interest due to the need to lessen our environmental impact and emissions. In this study, a heat hardened solid inorganic sodium silicate binder was tested with a 3D printed resin material to see how the use of such a material affected a silica mould’s quality, e.g. surface roughness. Results were compared to moulds made with metallic patterns. The unmodified binder had sticking issues when used with a metallic pattern, resulting in a rough as-moulded surface. Such issues were not seen with the printed resin patterns, also hinting at good performance with binders that contain performance increasing additives. The resin pattern material has a Heat Deflection Temperature (HDT) of 230°C, enabling the use of inorganic binders that require temperatures between 160–200°C to harden and dry. Additive manufacturing of such materials also allows designs for other hardening techniques than furnace heating, such as microwave heating. The moulds hardened with microwaves did not exhibit sticking issues. Additive manufacturing of tooling is a potential source of geometrical variation in final castings and are also studied in this work. In general, switching from traditional sand moulding patterns used with organic binder systems to inorganic systems, the patterns and core boxes need to be replaced by new ones made of a metallic or other heat resistant material. The studied material is a promising option for such a switch, especially when a complex shape enabled by additive manufacturing is also required.
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creator: Kalle Jalava
creator: Nurul Anwar
creator: Juhani Orkas
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Kalle Jalava, Nurul Anwar, Juhani Orkas https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-06-05
publication date: 2024-06-05
starting page: 25
ending page: 29
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.2.25

Solidification Process Modeling of Equiaxed Investment Castings with Transient Nonuniform Boundary Condition Definition
type: item
description: The equiaxed investment casting process is a multi-physics problem which requires knowledge from engineers who have expertise in materials, metallurgy, fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, and heat transfer. Process modeling is a tool used by foundries to help predict casting defects such as shrinkage porosity, hot tears, and poor grain structure. The reliability of these predictions is strongly dependent on the accuracy of the thermal boundary conditions set in the model. In this work, a SGT5-2000E Vane 4 cast in Rene 80 nickel-based superalloy was modeled, using the FEA simulation package ProCAST, with two different methodologies. One methodology had very little effort invested into defining the thermal domain. The other methodology involved a thorough consideration of all heat transfer mechanisms acting on the mold. An extensive literature search was performed to define a unique natural convection heat transfer coefficient for each set of surfaces on the mold. The transient boundary layer development was also captured in the definition of the heat conditions. The shrinkage porosity predictions of the models were compared to real-world x-ray data and the transient nonuniform methodology predictions were much more representative than the low fidelity heat transfer methodology predictions. The low fidelity heat transfer model did predict some shrinkage, but not where it appeared in reality. The process modeler will be misdirected by the model results when deriving a solution to the casting process if the real-world physics are not appropriately accounted for in the model. This will be very counterproductive when the foundry is using the model to reduce developmental trials by running trials in model space. References and derived parameters are provided for material properties, emissivity of shell and insulation wraps, and external mold spatially varying heat transfer coefficients.
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creator: Weston Olson
creator: Michael Stemmler
creator: Erik Fernandez
creator: Jayanta Kapat
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Weston Olson, Michael Stemmler, Erik Fernandez, Jayanta Kapat https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2024-03-30
publication date: 2024-03-30
starting page: 1
ending page: 10
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2024.8.1.1

Effect of Titanium Alloying of Zn-Al-Cu Alloys for High Pressure Die Casting in Production Conditions
type: item
description: The paper presents the possibility of the industrial production of Zn4Al3Cu alloy with the addition of 0.41% Ti. Tests are described on the manner of introducing the ZnTi2 master alloy to the alloy, so that the chemical composition of the desirable elements proportion is obtained. The chemical persistence of the Zn4Al3CuTi was determined as low in the conditions of the long heating of the alloy before casting. Tests on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the obtained alloys were also conducted. The strength of the die-cast Zn4Al3Cu alloy was 265 MPa and, when measured on samples taken from the high pressure die-cast, it reached 369 MPa. It was determined that the addition of titanium to the Zn4Al3Cu alloy causes significant refinement of the structure and contributes to the formation of intermetallic phases.
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creator: Łukasz Pasierb
creator: Jan Łakomski
creator: Krzysztof Figurski
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Łukasz Pasierb, Jan Łakomski, Krzysztof Figurski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2023-12-15
publication date: 2023-12-15
starting page: 56
ending page: 62
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2023.7.4.56

The Circular Economy in Terms of Zinc Recovery from Industrial Waste – Directions for the Development and Profitability of Recycling
type: item
description: The article reviews the current state of the art in the field of zinc recycling. The results of model studies of the profitability (profitability) of the process of zinc recovery in precipitation in the form of dusts and sludges are presented. The cost of purchasing waste and the necessary energy and material expenditures were taken into account. It has been shown that access to a cheap source of waste is essential for the profitability of the zinc recovery process.
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creator: Artur Bobrowski
creator: Aleksander Nejranowski
rights: Copyright (c) 2023 Artur Bobrowski, Aleksander Nejranowski https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
date: 2023-12-15
publication date: 2023-12-15
starting page: 49
ending page: 55
doi: 10.7494/jcme.2023.7.4.49